Environmental Justice: Definition, History, and its Ongoing Movement in the US

Exploring the roots, evolution, and contemporary significance of environmental justice in the United States.

By Sneha Tete, Integrated MA, Certified Relationship Coach

Created on Sep 27, 2025

Exploring the roots, evolution, and contemporary significance of environmental justice in the United States.

What Is Environmental Justice?

Environmental justice refers to the principle that all people—regardless of race, color, national origin, or income—are entitled to equal protection and meaningful involvement in the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

The concept addresses the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards on marginalized communities, particularly low-income groups and communities of color. It emphasizes equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, ensuring that no group of people, especially vulnerable or minority populations, bears a greater share of environmental risks.

Fair treatment: No group of individuals should suffer more environmental harm than others because of demographic or economic factors.
Meaningful involvement: All people must have the opportunity to participate in decisions that may affect their environment or health.
Equal protection: Environmental laws and policies should be applied fairly and justly, without discrimination.

Understanding Environmental Racism

Environmental racism is the term used to describe the disproportionate exposure of communities of color to pollution and environmental hazards, alongside the systematic exclusion of these groups from environmental policy development and regulation enforcement.

This concept highlights the intersection between racial injustice and environmental policies, where minority communities face greater environmental risks and are less likely to benefit from measures intended to protect public health and the environment.

Examples include siting of toxic waste facilities, landfills, and industrial plants near African American, Indigenous, Latinx, and low-income neighborhoods.
Lack of investment in infrastructure and environmental remediation in marginalized communities perpetuates disparities in health, quality of life, and access to clean air and water.

The Environmental Justice Movement: Origins and Evolution

The environmental justice movement emerged in the United States in response to the realization that traditional environmental activism often neglected the social and racial dimensions of environmental harm. Its origins can be traced to both the Civil Rights Movement and the growing concern over health and environmental hazards in minority and low-income communities, especially in the late 20th century.

Key Early Events and Influences

1960s Civil Rights Era: The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, particularly Title VI, barred use of federal funds for discriminatory programs and laid the legal groundwork against environmental discrimination. Dr. Martin Luther King’s advocacy for economic and social equality, including his support of black sanitation workers in Memphis, contributed philosophical underpinnings to the cause.
First Legal Challenge (1968-1979): In 1968 and especially 1979, Linda McKeever Bullard filed the landmark civil rights lawsuit Bean v. Southwestern Waste Management Inc for the Northeast Community Action Group in Houston, Texas. This was the first suit challenging hazardous facility siting on civil rights grounds.
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1969: This pivotal act mandated federal agencies to evaluate the environmental impact of their actions, laying a foundation for public awareness and government accountability.

Warren County, North Carolina: The Birth of a Movement

One of the most iconic events that galvanized the environmental justice movement was the 1982 protests in Warren County, North Carolina. The state decided to locate a hazardous waste landfill in a predominantly black, low-income community to dispose of PCB-contaminated soil.

Protests erupted for six weeks, drawing hundreds of demonstrators. Over 500 people were arrested, making it one of the largest civil disobedience campaigns in the American environmental movement.
Though the landfill was ultimately built, the Warren County protests are widely viewed as the spark that ignited nationwide grassroots activism connecting race, waste, and justice.

Expansion and Momentum (1980s–1990s)

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the momentum for environmental justice continued to build through grassroots organizing, influential research, major conferences, and policy interventions.

In 1983, Dr. Robert Bullard published his study of waste site locations in Houston, revealing that African American neighborhoods were disproportionately targeted for disposal facilities. His later book, Dumping in Dixie (1990), is considered the first major textbook on environmental justice.
In 1987, the United Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice published Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States, the first national report to empirically document the correlation between race and proximity to hazardous waste sites. This study provided undeniable evidence linking race and environmental risk.
In 1991, the first National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit convened in Washington, D.C., formally articulating environmental justice as a movement. The 17 Principles of Environmental Justice were drafted there—these continue to serve as guiding tenets for activists and policymakers today.

Major Cases and Reports

General Accounting Office (GAO) 1983 Study: A congressional report confirmed that three out of four hazardous waste landfills in the southeastern US were located in predominantly Black communities, and these communities had significantly higher poverty rates compared to others.
United Church of Christ 1987 Report: The landmark Toxic Wastes and Race study brought national attention to environmental racism, demonstrating that race was the most significant predictor of hazardous facility location—even more than income.
EPA Environmental Equity Work Group, 1990: The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), prompted by grassroots activism and research, created the Environmental Equity Work Group, which culminated in the first agency-wide review of risks posed to low-income communities and communities of color.
EPA National Environmental Justice Advisory Council, 1993: Following these findings, the EPA established a formal advisory council to better incorporate community voices and address inequities at a federal level.
Executive Order 12898 (1994): President Bill Clinton signed this executive order directing all federal agencies to identify and address disproportionately high and adverse health or environmental effects of their actions on minority and low-income populations. This policy action remains the regulatory backbone of environmental justice in federal law.

Milestones in Environmental Justice Policy

Year	Event / Legislation	Summary Impact
1964	Civil Rights Act (Title VI)	Prohibited discrimination with federal funds, laid legal framework for later environmental lawsuits.
1969	National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)	Required environmental impact analysis for federal projects, launching more public environmental review.
1987	Toxic Waste and Race report	Brought national attention to environmental racism, influencing later EPA actions.
1990	EPA Environmental Equity Work Group	First systematic federal examination of risks to minority and low-income communities.
1991	National People of Color Environmental Leadership Summit	First defining summit for the movement; produced 17 Principles of Environmental Justice.
1993	Establishment of National Environmental Justice Advisory Council	Formal federal recognition and guidance for environmental justice concerns.
1994	Executive Order 12898	Codified environmental justice as federal government policy objective.

Environmental Justice Today: Persistent Challenges and New Frontiers

Despite its codification in law and policy, environmental justice remains an ongoing struggle for many communities in the United States. Modern environmental injustices are not relics of the past—they continue to manifest in various forms, from polluted waterways in predominantly Black cities to exposure to industrial toxins in Native American reservations.

Key ongoing challenges include:

Disparities in pollution exposure: Marginalized communities still see higher rates of exposure to air, soil, and water pollution compared to wealthier or predominantly white areas. Poor air quality, lead contamination, and toxic waste sites disproportionately affect BIPOC and low-income communities.
Health impacts: Elevated rates of asthma, cancer, and other illness in communities near highways, waste facilities, or legacy industrial sites demonstrate the tangible cost of environmental injustice.
Inequities in disaster response: After hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters, communities of color often receive less government relief and experience slower recovery than more affluent populations.
Lack of representation in decision-making: Communities most affected by environmental harms are still underrepresented in local, state, and federal policymaking processes.
Climate change vulnerabilities: As temperatures rise and extreme weather events become more frequent, environmental justice communities are frequently at heightened risk, with fewer resources to adapt or recover.

Progress and Hope

Ongoing activism and community organization continue to highlight injustices and demand accountability from both corporate polluters and government agencies.
New policies and funding opportunities—such as those tied to climate adaptation, infrastructure, and clean energy—offer hope for more equitable investment and improved health outcomes.
Youth and frontline activists, often from directly impacted communities, are leading new movements and partnerships across the climate and environmental spaces.

Frequently Asked Questions about Environmental Justice

What is the main goal of environmental justice?

The primary goal is to ensure all people, regardless of demographic background or income, enjoy equal protection and participation in environmental decision-making, and that no group unfairly bears the burden of environmental harm.

How did environmental justice start in the US?

The movement draws from the Civil Rights Era of the 1960s and grew rapidly following the Warren County, North Carolina protests in 1982, which rallied against a PCB landfill sited in a poor, Black community. Influential research and activism through the 1980s and 1990s solidified the movement.

What is environmental racism?

Environmental racism describes the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards on communities of color, typically due to discriminatory policy, institutional negligence, or lack of political power.

What are examples of environmental injustice?

Placing landfills, incinerators, or toxic waste sites in minority or low-income neighborhoods
Disproportionate impacts of climate change or disaster on communities with the fewest resources
Limited access to clean air, water, or green space in urban communities of color

How is environmental justice addressed in policy?

Environmental justice is institutionalized at the federal level through Executive Order 12898 and later initiatives, requiring agencies to assess and address disparate impacts of their actions on minority and low-income groups. Many states also have laws or policies advancing environmental justice.